Historical-Political Aspects of Karabagh
(Artsakh) Conflict
Artsakh (Karabagh),
one of the 15 provinces of Armenia, played a significant strategic role for
the Armenian statehood throughout its history. Artsakh served as a shield
for the central regions of Armenia from the raids of nomadic tribes from the
east. Starting from the 17th century Artsakh and mainly its lowland areas
were subject to infiltration by foreigners who differed from the authentic
Armenian popualtion by their ethnic features and religioun. In the 19th century
the famous traveler and explorer Lynch noted that Karabagh which had been
inhabited by Armenians since the ancient times and was settled by the Tatar
emigrants was the sound bearing point and defense for Armenia from the Caspian
Sea.
Despite the fact
that the ethnic and political changes in the Near East somehow affected the
Artsakh region of Armenia, it successfully maintained its internal independence
and ruling system, as well as the structure and system of social-economic
development of the Armenian feudal society.
For the first
time Artsakh is mentioned as 'Urtekhe' or 'Urtekhini' in the cuneiform records
of the so-called Urartu period of the Armenian history. According to the sources
of the 1st century BC, Artsakh ('Orkhistene') is mentioned as one of the Armenian
provinces. "The Armenian provinces include Favnena, as well as Kombisena
and Orkhistena, and Orkhistena provides the largest number of riders', notes
Strabon.
Aghatangelos (5th century) testifies that the winter residence of the Armenian
kings was in Utik Province, northwards Artsakh.
In the 5th century
Artsakh is mentioned as 'Pokr Siunik' ('Syunik Minor'). According to Movses
Khorenatsi, after young Grigoris died in the field Vatnyan his deacons took
his body to Syunik Minor and buried him in the village of Amaras.
Yeghishe writes
that after Avarayr Battle in 451 many of the Armenians who had revolted against
Persia ran away and found shelter 'in the southern and impassable lands of
Tmorik and the forests of Artsakh'.
Finally, according
to "Ashkharatsuyts" ("Armenian Geography", 7th century),
"Great Armenia is divided into 15 provinces, including …9. Artsakh, 10.Siunik,
… 12. Utik…". In the works of the Hellenic-Roman and Armenian authors
it is directly indicated that the River Kura was the border between Armenia
and Caucasus Albania. Utik and Artsakh situated at the right bank of the Kura
were part of Armenia.
Claudius Ptolomeus wrote: "From the north Great Armenia borders on part
of Kolkhida, Iveria and Albania, and the border passes along the River Kura".
Byuzand (5th century)
wrote: 'He (Mushegh Mamikonyan) established the border of his country (Armenia)
and Albania along the River Kura, as it formerly used to be". The Maskut
king Sanesan 'crossed his border, the big River Kura and invaded into the
country of Armenia".
The political, social-economic and cultural issues of Artsakh are more expansively
described in "History of Aluank Country" by the Armenian author
Movses Daskhurantsi (10th century).
From the Arabic
dominion through the re-establishment of the Armenian statehood under the
leadership of the Bagratids (885), Artsakh constituted part of the administrative
unit "Armenia", and during the reign of the Bagratids was included
in it.
Starting from
the 10th century Artsakh is mentioned in the historical works and sources
by the name of "Khachen". During the ruling of Prince Sakhel Smbatian
the center of the principality, i.e., the fortress of Khachen, became the
princely residence. Like before, Khachen Principality remained one of the
regions of Armenia. The Byzantine emperor Constantine addressed his letters
to the prince of Khachen with the inscription "To Prince of Khachen,
Armenia".
The name "Karabagh"
is first mentioned in the 14th century. Geographically, it corresponded to
the territory of Khachen principality. "Today it is called Karabagh and
Mugan", a Georgian historian wrote.
The sources testify
that Mountainous Karabagh was one of the original provinces of Armenia regardless
of the different names assigned to the territory in various periods of the
history, and the Armenians have always been the aborigine population of Nagorno
Karabagh. As an eyewitness, Strabon evidences that during the reign of the
Armenian king Artashes I (189-160 ) in Armenia "nowadays all these peoples
speak the same language", i.e., Armenian. Stepanos Siunetsi, an Armenian
poet and grammarian (VII-VIII centuries), indicating about the existence of
the Armenian dialects in Armenia, wrote: "And for mastering the language
one should be familiar with all dialects, such as the dialect of Korchaik
and Tauk, Khut, and Fourth Armenia, and Sper, and Siunik, and Artsakh".
One of the Arabic
sources evidences that not long before the Mongol invasions when the troops
of Jelal ad-Din intruded into Transcaucasus, the Artsakh Armenian prince Hasan-Jalal,
the founder of the famous Gandzasar Monastery (1240) was released from the
threats of Sharaf al-Mulk who was moving to Transcaucasus for collecting taxes.
The prince paid the lump sum tax and set free the Moslem prisoners: "(Sharaf
al-Mulk) stopped near Khachen Fortress where Jelal ad-Din, the nephew (the
son of his sister) Ivaneh al-Kurjhi was residing. Sharaf al-Mulk assailed
him with threats until an agreement was reached under the condition that 10,000
dinars would be paid to Sharaf al-Mulk and 700 Moslem prisoners would be released
that had been captured a various periods. Among the prisoners there were some
elderly people that had been taken hostage in their childhood."
Despite the fact
that during the period of the Mongol invasions (1236-1350) the Artsakh rulers
obeyed the Mongols and participated with their armies in the military campaigns
against the Seljuk tribes, they successfully maintained their internal independence.
Khokhanaberd Fortress was the center of the Artsakh Principality (near Gandzasar
Monastery).
In the 1380s'
Transcaucasus was attacked by the hordes of Temur-Lenk (Lenk-Temur) from Central
Asia, and before 1405 Artsakh, as well as the entire region suffered from
the consequences of the disastrous attacks of Timurids who conquered basically
the lowlands and more fertile areas of the Armenian uplands. Hans Schiltberger
witnesses in his "Travel": "I also spent much time in Armenia.
After the death of Tamerlan I was brought to his son who reigned over two
kingdoms in Armenia. This son of his by the name of Shah-Roh was in the habit
of spending his winter in a large plateau called Karabag which was notable
for its good pastures. It is irrigated by the River Kura which is also called
Tigris, and the best silk is obtained from the nearby areas of the river banks.
Although the plateau is situated in Armenia, it belongs to pagans to who the
Armenian population is obliged to pay taxes. The Armenians always treated
me well, because I was a German, and, in general, they are well disposed towards
the Germans or as they call as, the Nimitses. They taught me their language
and gave their "Pater noster" to me.
As opposed to
several other regions of Armenia which were under the rule of Turkey and Iran
in the XVI-XVIII centuries and where the feudal class was basically devoid
of hereditary feudal rights, the Artsakh and Siunik meliks (princes) maintained
their relative independence and domains, especially in the mountainous regions,
and had their regular armies.
As the result
of the feudal division of Artsakh Principality in the XIV-XV centuries around
ten Armenian principalities (melikdoms) were formed in the region which were
known by the names of their domains in the XVI-XVIII centuries:
1. Giulistan
Melikdom with its center situated in Orekavan (Talish) and the fortress of
Giulistan, stretched between the rivers of Kurak and Tartar.
2. Jraberd
Melikdom
3. Khachen
Melikdom
4. Varanda
Melikdom
5. Dizak
Melikdom
6. Melikdom
of Tsar (Karvachar-Kelbajar)
7. Kashatagh
Melikdom.
In the XVI-XVII
centuries the catholicos of Gandzasar was the uniting link for the successive
rulers-princes of Artsakh. He often represented the meliks in the negotiations
with the neighboring states. Thus, according to the Georgian historian Parsadan
Gorgijanidze, in 1631, during the negotiations with the Georgian king Teimuraz
I the catholicos of Gandzasar was the first to offer the 40,000 Artsakh army
for the joint military campaign against the Persian supremacy.
This is not the
only evidence of the significant role of the catholicii of Gandzasar. In 1672
the catholicos of Gandzasar Peter who, despite the clerical traditions, called
himself "the catholicos of Armenia" (this title was the prerogative
of the Echmiadzin catholicos) for the mere purpose of emphasizing the ethnic
origin of his flock rather than challenging the existing hierarchy in the
Armenian church, requested the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich that he should
protect the Armenian people and support the Armenian delegates who were on
a visit to Moscow.
The negotiations
on liberation of Armenia from the foreign yoke initiated with the European
countries were mainly based on the military forces of the Armenian meliks
of Artsakh and Siunik. Israel Ori and Archimandrite Minas were the diplomatic
representatives in Germany and Russia (their portraits painted by the famous
Italian artist Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini are still preserved in Munich).
Yesai Hasan-Jalalian,
the catholicos of Gandzasar, and Nerses, the catholicos of the northern regions
of Artsakh were also actively involved in the written negotiations with the
rulers of foreign states. In particular, Yesai Hasan-Jalalian wrote appeals
to Peter I for several times.
Owing to the joint
efforts of the Artsakh meliks attacks of the Ottoman troops were successfully
confronted during 1722-1730. It was the period when Turkey took advantage
over the weakened Sefevid state and the occupation of Iran by the Afghan troops,
intruded into Transcaucasus and occupied Georgia, the Ararat Valley and the
region of Azerbaijan in Persia with the center Tebriz (Details in: Region
in Dimensions). The regions around the Caspian Sea (Derbent, Baku, Gilian)
were occupied by Russia. The Armenian regions of Artsakh and Siunik fought
relentlessly for independence and more than once the Turkish troops had to
retreat from Artsakh incurring with major losses.
The occupation of Transcaucasus by the Turkish troops which lasted ten years
(1723-1732) was fatal for those Armenian-inhabited regions which were not
controlled by the forces of the Artsakh meliks. In his letter to the Georgian
King Vakhtang VI (dated February 5, 1725) Archimandrite
Martiros from Derbent gives the list of those villages which were destroyed
and forcefully turned into the Islamic religion during the Turkish occupation.
The situation deteriorated due to the involvement of Ajhi Davud, a Turkish
ally, in the political issues. According to I.G. Herber, who described the
existing situation in 1728, "There lived more Armenians in Kabal than
in the other districts, and did not suffer from the assaults of the offenders
since they were rich and pay off big money to Khoja Davud and Surkhai. In
1727 the former khan in Shemakh appointed his son a satrap in Kabal who treated
the Armenians with cruelty and tried to turn them into Mohammedan religion,
and since they refused to disavow Christianity and withstood all tortures,
they were forcefully driven into the mosque and cut. Then Khoja Davud ordered
to announce that this was done against his will, and those who come to him
with gifts will be free to confess their own religion. This is what the Armenians
did and were permitted by the Khan to obey to their laws. They continued going
to the church, but the Mohammedan clergy became angry with them and imposed
fines on them as the apostates and stripped them from everything and again
drove them to the mosques, and, thus, the Armenians in Kabal have forcefully
become Mohammedans". This fact is confirmed in "The Description
of the Locations Neighboring Georgia" by the Georgian King Irakli II:
"The Sheki Khan was known by the name of Ajhi Chalab, and his father
was an Armenian clergyman ( cf.: Abdul-Latif-Effendi, "History of Sheki
Khans", Original and Translation, translated from the Turkish language
by A. Dadashev, Baku, Publication of the Society of Investigation and Study
of Azerbaijan, 1926, p. 5), but Ajhi Chalab confessed the Mohammedan religion
and by some tricks became the ruler of Sheki which formerly used to be under
the control of the Kakheti King, but was forcedly taken over by the Persian
Shah Abaz I, and today many of the residents of Sheki openly follow the Armenian
law and our Greek law with consternation".
In 1734-1735 Takhmasp-kuli
Khan (later known as Shah Nadir) was obliged to recognize the independence
of the Artsakh meliks in their domains in the view of their adamant confrontation,
as well as for the purpose of attracting allies. Thus, he acknowledged one
of the noble meliks, Yegan as a Beklarbek, the head of Khamsa (the five Armenian
melikdoms). Melik Yegan died in 1744 and Aram became his successor. However,
the latter ruled only for a one-year period. Melik Aram was substituted by
his brother Yesai who ruled for 33 years. There is an inscription on the tombstone
of Melik Yesai: "This is the tomb of Melik Yesai, the son of the great
melik Yegan. He was appointed a prince by Shah Nadir. He ruled over the country
of Dizak for 33 years, accomplished many feats and had numerous victories
over the disbeliveers. He was more courageous and decent than any of his ancestors.
He died at the age of 61, in the summer of 1230 (according to the Armenian
calendar), (1781) on October 2...".
In his narrative
about Karabagh in "Description" Irakli II mentions: "Khamsa
constitutes the dominion and the entire population follows the Armenian rule.
Also, it is the residence of the patriarch. And when the Persian shah died,
a person of the Mohammed religion (i.e., Panah) of Jivanshir descent, took
the power. There is an old fortress in the domain of Khamsa which was taken
with slyness, and many times we had to fight against the people of Jivanshir,
but with the divine help we always defeated them. In the view of several factors,
presently a peace agreement has been concluded with them. The Armenians have
a large fortress, mountainous landscape covered with forests, and, as a matter
of fact, their fields are fertile. The Jivanshir army consists of 2500 people,
while the army of the Armenians consists of 4500 ("Documents and other
historical materials of the XVIII century related to Georgia" Vol. I,
from 1768 to 1774. Edited by A. Ŕ. Tsagareli. St. Petersburg, 1891, pp. 434-435).
In 1783, following
the conclusion of the Russian-Georgian tractate, Irakli II presented to the
Russian Tsar the list of the domains existing in Georgia and the neighbouring
areas and their coats of arm.
"The coat
of arms of Georgia - a mountain with two arrows.
The coat of arms
of Kakhetia - Great Martyr Georgi on the horseback.
The coat of arms
of Yerevan - Mount Ararat with the Arch
The coat of arms
of Gianja - a flame with three tongues
The coat of arms
of Atabashi - a lake and a monastery
The coat of arms
of Kazak - a hand with a spear
The coat of arms
of Borchalu - a sward
The coat of arms
of Shamshadil - weapon
The coat of arms
of Shirvan - wolf
The coat of arms
of Shakon - fox.
The original contains
the signatory: IRAKLI".
Although the coats
of arms of Karabagh Khanate and Armenian meliks are not included in the list
compiled by Irakli, other sources testify that that the Armenian meliks also
had their coats of arms. The coat of arms of one of the meliks of Varanda
contains Armenian monograms. A cupola of church with a cross is pictured above
the head of the eagle. This is indicative of the fact that all of them had
the status of independent political formations.
In 1783 Russia
had serious intentions to re-establish the Armenian statehood on the basis
of Artsakh Oblast and to dissolve Karabagh khanate which was formed with the
assistance of one of the Armenian meliks about 30 years ago. The plan was
reported to Yekaterina II by Prince Grigori Potiomkin: "Without having
the approval of Your Majesty, I passed the resolution on Ibrahim Khan of Shushi
to Lieutenant General Potiomkin which calls for obedience. It needs to be
considered in order to pass his dominion which is inhabited mainly by Armenians
to national administration, and, thus, re-establish a Christian state in Asia,
as promised by Your Majesty to the Armenian meliks though me".
Karabagh, like Georgia, incurred major losses in 1795 due to the destructive
military offence of the Persian troops under the commandment of Agha Mamad
Khan, …in the Karabagh domain there lived about 40,000 Armenian households".
In 1805 Ibrahim
Khan began the negotiations with Russia under the pressure of the Armenian
meliks and for the purpose of keeping his power. As the result, he was obliged
to become the subject of Russia. However, in the following year he affiliated
with Persia, because his had serious concerns about losing the power and guaranteeing
future security for his family. For such action he was killed in 1806. A.
Bakikhanov wrote: "Ibrahim Khan of Karabagh, who established friendly
relations with the Persians, asked for assistance in his attempts to get rid
of the Russian supremacy. His son Abiul-Fet-Khan moved with his troops from
Kapan to Shusha. Abbas-Mirza crossed the Khudaperi bridge (across the Arax).
Major Lisanevich, the commander of the Russian troops in Shushi at the midnight
of June 2, 1221 (1806) charged against Ibrahim Khan who at that time resided
with his family and servants in his camp behind the fortress. The Russians
killed him and his wife, son, daughter, the sister of Selim Khan of Sheki
and many of his servants and followers".
In the official
Russian Bulletin "Names and Provinces of Five Armenian Meliks" the
following situation is pictured as of the moment before Artsakh was connected
to Russia:
"Their whole
domain is called Karabag.
The first melik
is Jimshid, the son of melik Shahnazar whose province is called Varand and
the fortress is Shusha. His son and a yuzbasha assist him.
The second melik
is Abov, the son of melik Joseph whose province is called Ikirmieort and the
fortress is Giulistan. Abov drove out the major part of his population from
that province, seeking for the mercy of His Majesty and settled them in Georgia
under the protection of the Georgian King whose nephew melik Piridon is here
together with the aforementioned melik Jimishid.
The third melik
is Rostom, the vicegerent of melik Mechlum, the son of melik Adam, and his
province is called Charabert.
The fourth melik
is Abas, the son of melik Bakhtam, and his province is Duzag.
The fifth melik
is Alla-verdi, the son of melik Mirzakhan, and his province is called Khachen.
The aforementioned meliks have yuzbashes, i.e., generals, in their service.
Some of these generals receive this position by the right of succession while
the others are appointed by the meliks as a recognition of their outstanding
service".
In the 19th century
Shushi, the center of Artsakh ( V. Potto, "First
Volunteers of Karabagh During the Period of Establishment of the Russian Dominion"
(Melik-Vani and Hakop-Yuzbashi Atabekovs), Tiflis, 1902; V. Potto, "Heroic
Defense of Shushi Fortress", Publication 2, St. Petersburg, 1903) became
the third largest town in Transcaucasus where the Armenian culture and education
flourished. Shushi had a major impact on the development of culture of the
entire Transcaucasus, including the Tatar (later "Azerbaijani")
culture. The prospering of the town and the region was interrupted for a long
period on March 23, 1920 when the Turkish troops entered into the town and
perpetrated the bloody massacre of the Armenian population, destroyed the
town. Thus, the Turks pursued the goal of achieving the quantitative prevalence
of the Turkish population over the Armenians. The barbaric action of 1920
left its traces for the following years. In addition, the tragic event became
the reason why Shushi no longer existed as the center of NKAO, and instead
a new town, Stepanakert, was erected.
1918-1920 marked as one of the severe periods in the ancient history of the
Karabagh Armenians. It was during these years that Artsakh became the subject
of "territorial disagreements".
In spring of 1918,
after the conclusion of the Brest Agreement Turkey actively pushed its aggressive
policy in Transcaucasus and due to its efforts, the Transcaucasus Seim declared
about the independence of Transcaucasus from Russia. Shortly thereafter Turkey
occupied the major part of Armenia, and only after the defeat at Sardarapat
Battle was obliged to temporarily stop its advancement in the direction of
Baku and the Caspian Sea. On May 26, 1918 the Transcaucasus Seim promulgated
about self-dissolution and each of the national factions in the Seim declared
about the reinstitution of their national statehood. Thus, three democratic
republics were established in Transcaucasus. Unlike Armenia and Georgia, for
the first time in the history the state of Azerbaijan appeared in the political
map of Transcaucasus which did not exist previously. The name for the Moslem
population of East Transcaucasus was taken from the terminology of the Iranian
state which had the respective region with its center Tebriz. In the 16th-18th
centuries the Persian vicegerents were responsible for the fiscal affairs
of the entire Transcaucasus which was the subject of Iran (Persian Documents
of the Matenadaran. Vol. II, Issue I. Compiled by A. D. Papazian, Yerevan,
Publication of the Academy of Sciences of Arm SSR, 1968, pp. 345-348 ) . However,
since during the period from May through July, 1918 the power was in the hands
of the Baku Commune (headed by Stepan Shahumian), the Azerbaijani government
based in Gandzak (Gianja) until the Turkish troops occupied Baku. As a matter
of fact, the defense forces of Baku basically constituted Armenians. In September,
1918 the members of the Baku Commune were executed. With the assistance of
England Turkey successfully strengthened its position in Baku and the establishment
of the new Turkish-Azerbaijani state was initiated. The Turks tried to expand
the borders of the newly established state at the cost both the Armenian and
Iranian territories.
The Caucasus Tatars
themselves were puzzled by the assignment of the name "Azerbaijan".
In 1925 Academician V. V. Bartold was asked the following question at one
of his classes in the University of Baku: "Under the name of Azerbaijan
the Persian Azerbaijan with the center of Tebriz. In this respect do we have
the right to call this country Azerbaijan. Or is it more appropriate to use
the name Shirvan?"
Academician Bartold gave the following answer: "Shirvan was never used
in the sense that it encompassed the territory of the present Azerbaijani
Republic. Shirvan covers a small area with the main town of Shemakha. Towns
like Giunja or others, etc did not ever constitute part of Shirvan. The name
Arran is the most appropriate term for all the regions incorporated in the
Azerbaijani Republic. However, the name Azerbaijan is chosen because it was
anticipated that the Persian Azerbaijan and this country would be merged into
one state since the compositions of their populations are almost identical.
Therefore, the name Azerbaijan was assigned to the republic…" (V. V.
Bartold, "Collection of Works", Vol. II, Part I, Moscow, 1963, p.
703 ).
After the Mousafats
came to power they adopted the ideology and policy of nationalism of Young
Turks and Pan-Turkism, and had far-reaching pretensions to Nagorno Karabagh,
Zangezur and Nakhichevan for ensuring the direct connection between Turkey
and the newly promulgated Azerbaijan. Due to these pretensions which were
devoid of any historical-ethnographic grounds, regular inter-national conflicts.
Until 1921 Azerbaijan failed to hold possession of these territories, and
only after the conclusion of the Russian-Turkish agreement on March 16, 1921
in Moscow Turkey achieved the disconnection of Nakhichevan from Armenia and
its inclusion into the administrative system of Azerbaijan, although Nakhichevan
did not even border on Azerbaijan.
Under the Resolution
of the Caucasus Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party
(of Bolsheviks) of July 5, 1921 the same actions were taken with respect of
Nagorno Karabagh. The resolution on the status of Karabagh was definitely
taken as the result of the subjective judgements and was devoid of any objective
and clearly substantiated grounds. On June 3, 1921 the Caucasus Bureau of
the RCP(B) promulgated the Resolution on the connection of Nagorno Karabagh
with Armenia, and the resolution was approved on July 4, 1921. Nevertheless,
on July 5 the resolution was revised and a decision was taken on passing Karabagh
to Azerbaijan along with granting broad autonomy and the administrative center
of Shushi. Nevertheless, the leaders of Azerbaijan did not agree to assigning
even administrative-territorial autonomy to Nagorno Karabagh. After the two
years' deferment, on July 4, 1923 the Presidium of the Central Operating Committee
of Soviets of Azerbaijan has obliged under the pressure of the Caucasus Bureau
to promulgate a resolution on the establishment of Nagorno Karabagh Autonomous
Oblast. Thus, after Turkey took control over Transcaucasus (1918-1920), it
succeeded in setting up a sound foundation for its far-reaching intentions.
Therefore, it is not surprising why nowadays Turkey runs a firm anti-Armenian
policy and why Armenia is still in blockage.
Turkey's policy
is targeted at providing any kind of support to Azerbaijan in its attempts
to subdue Artsakh, the very region of Armenia which was the symbol and warrant
of independence and state autonomy of Armenia throughout the period from the
13th to the 19th century, especially after the breakup of the Kilikia Kingdom
in 1375.
The synopsis of
the aforementioned facts and testimonies is given by V. Potto, one of the
competent and objective investigators of the history of Karabagh: "Among
the remnants of the previously prospering Armenian kingdom of Karabagh which
was under the control of Persia (East Transcaucasus was entirely under the
control of Iran until its connection with Russia in 1813) only in one domain
the patrimonial appanages of the Armenian meliks were preserved. They covered
the area from the Arax to Kurak-chai, about 20 versts from Gianja, the present
Yelizavetpol. In Artsakh, or Lowland Karabagh these domains included Dizak,
Baranda, Khachen, Charopert and Giulistan (Igirmi-Dort) which constituted
the Karabagh dominion, as stated in the old Russian sources.
There was only
one major melikdom, Keshtakh, in the mountainous part of Karabagh, Siunik
or Zangezur. It was surrounded with other minor melikdoms, and the area stretching
towards the River Arax was mainly inhabited by the Tatar nomads. In the view
of the downfall and total destruction of the Armenian kingdom the rulers of
these domains, i.e., the meliks, were able by their own efforts to maintain
the right of succession and even to preserve until the beginning of the 19th
century the political system which was set up here since the time of Persian
royal dynasty of Sefovids. As the vassals of Perisa, they received their rights
of succession by the Persian shahs and paid contribution to them, but instead,
they maintained their independence in the domestic administration of their
lands, they had their court and punishment system, their fortresses and even
army which protected the region from the Lezgins and Turks" ( V. Potto,
"The First Volunteers of Karabagh in the Period of Establishment of the
Russian Dominion" ).
